智慧树知到《如何推理论证（Arguments and Fallacies）》章节测试答案

智慧树知到《如何推理论证（Arguments and Fallacies）》章节测试答案
第一章单元测试
1、You can give the meaning of a word by describing how it is useD.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
2、All arguments are made up of （or expressed in） language of some kinD.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
3、To persuade someone， you need to justify a conclusion.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
4、An explanation answers a question about why something happeneD.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
5、Language is completely arbitrary.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
6、The goal of an argument is to beat an opponent.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
7、“Water is H2O， and salt is NaCl” is an argument.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
8、An argument can succeed in justifying its conclusion even if its audience rejects the argument’s premises.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
9、When an argument is used for persuasion， its purpose is to cause its audience to believe its conclusion.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
10、A justification tries to present a reason to believe its conclusion.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
11、Every argument has more than one premise.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
12、The goal of an argument is to abuse the audience.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
13、To justify a conclusion， you need to persuade someone.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
14、“33 + 66 = 99” is an argument.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
15、All arguments are used either to justify or to explain their conclusions.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
16、Every conclusion contradicts what the audience believes.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
17、An argument that is spoken is no good if it is not spoken loudly enough.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
18、When an argument is used for explanation， its purpose is to give a reason to believe that its conclusion is true.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
第二章单元测试
1、The word “since” is always a premise marker.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
2、If a word in a sentence can be replaced by a conclusion marker without significantly changing the meaning of the sentence， then the word is used as a conclusion marker in that sentence.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
3、Negative evaluative utterances say that something violates a standarD.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
4、An assuring term is reflexive when it refers to the mental state of the speaker.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
5、The word “too” in “too small” introduces an evaluation.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：正确
6、“If … then …” is an argument marker.
A.正确
B.错误
正确答案：错误
7、A（n）（）term is used to indicate that the speaker has some reasons for what he says without actually specifying what those reasons are.
A.G = guarding term
B.A = assuring term
C.D = discounting term
D.E = evaluative term
正确答案：A = assuring term
8、A（n）（）term is used to indicate a response to a possible objection.
A.A = assuring term
B.G = guarding term
C.D = discounting term
D.E = evaluative term
正确答案：D = discounting term
9、A（n）（）term is used to weaken a claim in order to make it easier to defend against possible criticisms.
A.A = assuring term
B.G = guarding term
C.D = discounting term
D.E = evaluative term
正确答案：G = guarding term
10、A（n）（）term can be either positive or negative.
A.A = assuring term
B.G = guarding term
C.D = discounting term
D.E = evaluative term
正确答案：E = evaluative term
11、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：；...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：D = a discounting term
12、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：G = a guarding term
13、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould—"；The Panda’s Thumb"；：；...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：E+ = a positive evaluative term
14、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：A = an assuring term
15、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：；...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N= none of the above
正确答案：E+ = a positive evaluative term
16、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould—"；The Panda’s Thumb"；：；...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：C = a conclusion marker
17、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould—"；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：G = a guarding term
18、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould—"；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：N = none of the above
19、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：D = a discounting term
20、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould—"；The Panda’s Thumb"；：...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：E- = a negative evaluative term
21、Please indicate the main function of the word that is in boldface in the following passage.More than one letter might be acceptable， but you must choose only one option as the best.；From Steven Jay Gould— "；The Panda’s Thumb"；：；...The message is paradoxical but profound.Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer； they are jury-rigged from a limited set of available components.Thus， they must have evolved from ordinary flowers.Thus the paradox and the common theme of this trilogy of essays：Our textbooks like to illustrate evolution with examples of optimal design—nearly perfect mimicry of a dead leaf by a butterfly or of a poisonous species by a palatable relative.However， ideal design is a lousy argument for evolution， for it mimics the postulated action of an omnipotent creator.Odd arrangements and funny solutions are the proof of evolution—paths that a sensible God would never tread but that a natural process， constrained by history， follows perforce.
A.P = a premise marker
B.C = a conclusion marker
C.A = an assuring term
D.G = a guarding term
E.D = a discounting term
F.E+ = a positive evaluative term
G.E- = a negative evaluative term
H.N = none of the above
正确答案：P = a premise marker
第三章单元测试
1、He is so strong that he can lift 100 kilograms.
A.N = not an argument
B.A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
C.V = an argument that is valid but not sound
D.B = an argument that is both valid and sound
正确答案：N = not an argument
2、Since Mrs.White did not commit the murder， Colonel Mustard did it.；Which of the following sentences could be added as a suppressed premise to make this argument valid？
A.Mrs.White and Colonel Mustard are characters in the board game Clue.
B.Either Mrs.White or Colonel Mustard committed the murder.
C.Mrs.White and Colonel Mustard are suspects for the murder.
D.Mrs.White and Colonel Mustard are the only suspects for the murder.
正确答案：Either Mrs.White or Colonel Mustard committed the murder.
3、Joe does not like steak.Therefore， some farmers don’t like steak.；Which of the following sentences could be added as a suppressed premise to make this argument valid？
A.Farmers raise plants but not animals.
B.Farmers raise animals but not plants.
C.Joe is a farmer.
D.Joe is not a farmer.
正确答案：Joe is a farmer.
4、An argument is sound （in the technical sense used in this course） when and only when
A.its conclusion is true.
B.its premises are true.
C.the argument is valid and its premises are true.
D.the argument is valid or its premises are true.
正确答案：the argument is valid and its premises are true.
5、If jellyfish were birds， then they would have feathers； so jellyfish are not birds.；Which of the following sentences could be added as a suppressed premise to make this argument valid？
A.Jellyfish cannot fly.
B.Birds are not fish.
C.Jellyfish have feathers.
D.Jellyfish do not have feathers.
正确答案：Jellyfish do not have feathers.
6、You ought to wear a coat， because it is freezing.；Which of the following sentences could be added as a suppressed premise to make this argument valid？。
A.You ought to wear a coat when it is freezing.
B.Coats keep you from freezing.
C.Most people wear coats when it is freezing.
D.Coats are made to be worn when it is freezing.
正确答案：You ought to wear a coat when it is freezing.
7、He can lift 100 kilograms， so he is strong.This is
A.N = not an argument
B.A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
C.V = an argument that is valid but not sound
D.B = an argument that is both valid and sound
正确答案：A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
8、Most people from Sao Paulo cheer for the Brazilian national team.
A.N = not an argument
B.A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
C.V = an argument that is valid but not sound
D.B = an argument that is both valid and sound
正确答案：N = not an argument
9、Indicate which of the proposed reconstructions best captures the argument in the following passage from John Russell， "；Is Eakins Our Greatest Painter？"；；…we prize him above all for the new dimension of moral awareness that he brought to American painting.
A.（1） We prize Eakins above all other painters.（）
（2） Eakins brought a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting.（from 1）
B.（1） Eakins brought a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting.（）
（2） We prize Eakins above all other painters.（from 1）
C.（1） Eakins brought a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting.
（2） We prize painters above all others when they bring a new moral awareness to American painting.（）
（3） We prize Eakins above all other painters.（from 1-2）
D.（1） Eakins brought a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting.
（2） A painter who brings a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting is better than all others.（）
（3） We prize Eakins above all other painters.（from 1-2）
正确答案：（1） Eakins brought a new dimension of moral awareness to American painting.
（2） We prize painters above all others when they bring a new moral awareness to American painting.（）
（3） We prize Eakins above all other painters.（from 1-2）
10、All criminals have tattoos， so Gizelle is not a criminal.；Indicate which of the following is a single suppressed premise that is sufficient to make this argument valiD.
A.Only criminals have tattoos.
B.Most people with tattoos are criminals.
C.Gizelle has a tattoo.
D.Gizelle does not have a tattoo.
正确答案：Gizelle does not have a tattoo.
11、Japan is bigger than Israel.Japan is not bigger than China.Therefore， China is bigger than Israel.；How would you describe the above example？ （In assessing soundness， you may assume commonly known facts.）
A.N = not an argument
B.A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
C.V = an argument that is valid but not sound
D.B = an argument that is both valid and sound
正确答案：B = an argument that is both valid and sound
12、Pigs cannot fly， so they are not birds.；Indicate which of the following is a single suppressed premise that is sufficient to make this argument valiD.
A.Only birds can fly.
B.All birds can fly.
C.Some birds can fly.
D.Some birds cannot fly.
正确答案：All birds can fly.
13、There was a murder， and the only suspects who could have committed it are Mr.Green and Mrs.Peacock， so the murderer must be Mr.Green.；Indicate which of the following is a single suppressed premise that is sufficient to make this argument valiD.
A.Mr.Green and Mrs.Peacock did not commit the murder together.
B.If Mr.Green committed the murder， then Mrs.Peacock did not.
C.Mrs.Peacock did not commit the murder.
D.Mr.Green is not the only suspect.
正确答案：Mrs.Peacock did not commit the murder.
14、Sao Paulo is in South America， for it is in Brazil， and Brazil is in South America.；How would you describe the above example？ （In assessing soundness， you may assume commonly known facts.）
A.N = not an argument
B.A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
C.V = an argument that is valid but not sound
D.B = an argument that is both valid and sound
正确答案：B = an argument that is both valid and sound
15、An argument cannot ever be valid （in the technical sense used in this course） when
A.its premises and conclusion are both true.
B.its premises and conclusion are both false.
C.its premises are false， and its conclusion is true.
D.its premises are true， and its conclusion is false.
E.None of the above.（That is， an argument can be valid with any of these combinations of truth values.）
正确答案：its premises are true， and its conclusion is false.
16、Indicate which of the proposed reconstructions best captures the argument in the following passage from Steven Jay Gould， “The Panda’s Thumb.”；Orchids manufacture their intricate devices from the common components of ordinary flowers， parts usually fitted for very different functions.If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power， surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes.Orchids were not made by an ideal engineer….
A.（1） Orchids are made up of common components of ordinary flowers.
（2） Those components of ordinary flowers are usually fitted for different purposes （in ordinary flowers than in orchids）.
（3） If God had designed a machine to reflect his wisdom and power， then he would not have used components generally fashioned for different purposes.（）
（4） God did not design orchids to reflect his wisdom and power.（from 1-3）
B.（1） Orchids are made up of common components of ordinary flowers.
（2） Those components of ordinary flowers are usually fitted for different purposes （in ordinary flowers than in orchids）.（）
（3） Orchids are made up of components that are usually fitted for different purposes.（from 1-2）
（4） If God had designed a machine to reflect his wisdom and power， then he would not have used components generally fashioned for different purposes.
（5） Orchids are a kind of machine.（）
（6） God did not design orchids to reflect his wisdom and power.（from 4- 5）
C.（1） Orchids are made up of common components of ordinary flowers.
（2） Those components of ordinary flowers are usually fitted for different purposes （in ordinary flowers than in orchids）.（）
（3） God did not design orchids.（from 1-2）
（4） If God had designed a machine to reflect his wisdom and power， then he would not have used components generally fashioned for different purposes.
（5） God designs things to reflect his wisdom and power.（）
（3） God did not design orchids.（from 4-5）
正确答案：（1） Orchids are made up of common components of ordinary flowers.
（2） Those components of ordinary flowers are usually fitted for different purposes （in ordinary flowers than in orchids）.（）
（3） Orchids are made up of components that are usually fitted for different purposes.（from 1-2）
（4） If God had designed a machine to reflect his wisdom and power， then he would not have used components generally fashioned for different purposes.
（5） Orchids are a kind of machine.（）
（6） God did not design orchids to reflect his wisdom and power.（from 4- 5）
17、Which of the proposed reconstructions best captures the argument in the following passage from Paul Davies， “Life and Death on Mars”？；If provided with the right equipment， astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.Therefore， a one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.
A.（1） Astronauts would be provided with the right equipment.
（2） Astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.（）
（3） A one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.（from 1-2）
B.（1） If provided with the right equipment， astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.
（2） Astronauts would be provided with the right equipment.
（3） Astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.（）
（4） A one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.（from 1-3）
C.（1） If provided with the right equipment， astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.
（2） Astronauts would be provided with the right equipment.（）
（3） Astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.（from 1-2）（）
（4） A one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.（from 3）
D.（1） If provided with the right equipment， astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.
（2） Astronauts would be provided with the right equipment.（）
（3） Astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.（from 1-2）
（4） If people live on Mars for years， then they do not suffer a quick demise.（）
（5） A one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.（from 3-4）
正确答案：（1） If provided with the right equipment， astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.
（2） Astronauts would be provided with the right equipment.（）
（3） Astronauts would have a chance of living on Mars for years.（from 1-2）
（4） If people live on Mars for years， then they do not suffer a quick demise.（）
（5） A one-way trip to Mars need not mean a quick demise.（from 3-4）
18、Indicate which of the proposed reconstructions best represents the argument in the following passage from an advertisement for Equal Exchange Coffee.；…We believe in trading directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.Then， should the coffee market decline， the farmers are still guaranteed a fair price.So have a cup of Equal Exchange Coffee….
A.（1） We believe in trading directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.
（2） If the coffee market declines， then the farmers are still guaranteed a fair price.（）
（3） Have a cup of Equal Exchange Coffee.（from 1-2）
B.（1） Equal Exchange Coffee company trades directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.
（2） If a coffee company trades with a fixed minimum rate， then， if the coffee market declines， the farmers are still guaranteed that minimum price.
（3） If a minimum price is mutually agreed-upon by the farmers， then that minimum price is fair.（）
（4） Equal Exchange Coffee company guarantees farmers a fair price.（from 1-3）
（5） You should buy coffee from a company that guarantees farmers a fair price.（）
（6） You should buy Equal Exchange Coffee.（from 4-5）
C.（1） We believe in trading directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.
（2） You should do what we believe in.（）
（3） You should trade directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.（from 1-2）
（4） If you trade directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate， then the coffee market will not decline.
（5） If the coffee market does not decline， then the farmers will still be guaranteed a fair price.
（6） If the farmers are guaranteed a fair price， then you should buy Equal Exchange Coffee.（）
（7） You should buy Equal Exchange Coffee.（from 3-6）
正确答案：（1） Equal Exchange Coffee company trades directly with small farming cooperatives at mutually agreed-upon prices with a fixed minimum rate.
（2） If a coffee company trades with a fixed minimum rate， then， if the coffee market declines， the farmers are still guaranteed that minimum price.
（3） If a minimum price is mutually agreed-upon by the farmers， then that minimum price is fair.（）
（4） Equal Exchange Coffee company guarantees farmers a fair price.（from 1-3）
（5） You should buy coffee from a company that guarantees farmers a fair price.（）
（6） You should buy Equal Exchange Coffee.（from 4-5）
19、Indicate which of the proposed reconstructions best represents the argument in the following passage from an advertisement for Equal Exchange Coffee.；…Of course， your decision to buy Equal Exchange need not be completely altruistic.For we take as much pride in refining the taste of our gourmet coffees as we do in helping the farmers who produce them….
A.（1） Your decision to buy Equal Exchange Coffee need not be completely altruistic.（）
（2） We take as much pride in refining the taste of our gourmet coffees as we do in helping the farmers who produce them.（from 1）
B.（1） We take as much pride in refining the taste of our gourmet coffees as we do in helping the farmers who produce them.（）
（2） Your decision to buy Equal Exchange Coffee need not be completely altruistic.（from 1）
C.（1） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes as much pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees as they do in helping the farmers who produce their gourmet coffees.
（2） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in helping the farmers who produce their gourmet coffees.（）
（3） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees.（from 1-2）
（4） If Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees， then their gourmet coffees will taste good.（）
（5） Equal Exchange gourmet coffees will taste good.（from 3-4）
（6） If Equal Exchange gourmet coffees will taste good， then you can make yourself happy by buying Equal Exchange gourmet coffees.（）
（7） You can make yourself happy by buying Equal Exchange gourmet coffees.（from 5-6）
（8） If you can make yourself happy by doing something， then your decision to do it need not be completely altruistic.（）
（9） Your decision to buy Equal Exchange need not be completely altruistic.（from 7-8）
正确答案：（1） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes as much pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees as they do in helping the farmers who produce their gourmet coffees.
（2） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in helping the farmers who produce their gourmet coffees.（）
（3） Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees.（from 1-2）
（4） If Equal Exchange Coffee company takes great pride in refining the taste of their gourmet coffees， then their gourmet coffees will taste good.（）
（5） Equal Exchange gourmet coffees will taste good.（from 3-4）
（6） If Equal Exchange gourmet coffees will taste good， then you can make yourself happy by buying Equal Exchange gourmet coffees.（）
（7） You can make yourself happy by buying Equal Exchange gourmet coffees.（from 5-6）
（8） If you can make yourself happy by doing something， then your decision to do it need not be completely altruistic.（）
（9） Your decision to buy Equal Exchange need not be completely altruistic.（from 7-8）
第四章单元测试
1、An expression is vague if
A.it has two or more precise meanings.
B.there is no precise boundary between the cases in which it applies and the cases in which it does not apply.
C.it is misleading to others.
D.it is both valid and sounD.E.；All of the above.
正确答案：there is no precise boundary between the cases in which it applies and the cases in which it does not apply.
2、An expression is ambiguous if
A.it has two or more distinct meanings.
B.there is no precise boundary between the cases in which it applies and the cases in which it does not apply.
C.it is misleading to others.
D.it is both valid and sounD.E.；All of the above.
正确答案：it has two or more distinct meanings.
3、Which of the following expressions is vague？
A.division
B.285784
C.distance
D.electric current
E.heap
正确答案：heap
4、Which of the following expressions is vague？
A.twice
B.fast
C.zero
D.hour
正确答案：fast
5、Which of the following expressions is semantically ambiguous？
A.bank
B.river
C.North Carolina
D.the Atlantic Ocean
E.the International Monetary Fund
正确答案：bank
6、Which of the following sentences is syntactically ambiguous？
A.Close doors and open windows.
B.Please turn off your cell phones.
C.The speed limit on this road is 100 kilometers per hour.
D.The conference will be held next week.
E.I need to deposit some money at the bank.
正确答案：Close doors and open windows.
7、An argument that equivocates （or commits the fallacy of equivocation） is
A.an argument that depends on an ambiguity.
B.an argument with a premise that needs to be justified but isn’t justifieD.C.；an argument that something isn’t true because we do not know it is true.
D.an argument that a group of things must have a property because members of that group have that property.
E.an argument that cites insignificant changes along a continuum.
正确答案：an argument that depends on an ambiguity.
8、A slippery slope argument is
A.an argument that depends on an ambiguity.
B.an argument with a premise that needs to be justified but isn’t justifieD.C.；an argument that something isn’t true because we do not know it is true.
D.an argument that a group of things must have a property because members of that group have that property.
E.an argument that cites insignificant changes along a continuum.
正确答案：an argument that cites insignificant changes along a continuum.
9、Consider the following argument：“If you smoke one cigarette today， then you will end up smoking another one tomorrow， and more the day after that， and before you know it you will smoking two packs a day and shortening your life expectancy by decades.So you should not even smoke one cigarette today.”；This argument contains a
A.fallacy of equivocation.
B.conceptual slippery slope fallacy.
C.causal slippery slope fallacy.
D.fairness slippery slope fallacy.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：causal slippery slope fallacy.
第五章单元测试
1、An ad hominem argument
A.is an argument that the members of a group must have a property because the group as a whole has that property.
B.is an argument that criticizes what a person says by criticizing the person who says it.
C.is an argument that supports what a person says by citing good properties of the person who says it.
D.is an argument that tries to refute a position by showing that it implies something that is obviously false.
E.is an argument with a premise or conclusion that cannot be falsified by any possible event.
正确答案：is an argument that criticizes what a person says by criticizing the person who says it.
2、An appeal to authority
A.is an argument that the members of a group must have a property because the group as a whole has that property.
B.is an argument that criticizes what a person says by criticizing the person who says it.
C.is an argument that supports what a person says by citing good properties of the person who says it.
D.is an argument that tries to refute a position by showing that it implies something that is obviously false.
E.is an argument with a premise or conclusion that cannot be falsified by any possible event.
正确答案：is an argument that supports what a person says by citing good properties of the person who says it.
3、A silencer is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
4、A dismisser is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
5、A denier is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：the point that they are making is false.
6、An amplifier is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
7、A supporter is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
8、An affirmer is an argument in which the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that
A.they are not entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not listen to them.
B.they did not have enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should not believe them.
C.the point that they are making is false.
D.they are especially entitled to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should pay special attention to them.
E.they have more than enough evidence to make that point in the context in which they did， so you should be very confident that they are right.
F.the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is true.
正确答案：the premises are about the person making a point， and the conclusion is that the point that they are making is true.
9、Which of the following arguments is an ad hominem？
A.It’s true that John blurted out in court that the defendant was guilty， but John wasn’t entitled to speak on that occasion， so you must ignore what he saiD.B.；John said that the defendant was guilty， and John’s testimony is as reliable as anybody’s， so you should conclude that the defendant is guilty.
C.John said that the defendant was guilty， and in fact the defendant is guilty， so John spoke the truth.
D.John said that the defendant was guilty， and Jane said that too， so Jane corroborated John’s testimony.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：It’s true that John blurted out in court that the defendant was guilty， but John wasn’t entitled to speak on that occasion， so you must ignore what he said.
10、Which of the following arguments is an ad hominem？
A.It’s true that Joe is a genius， but that doesn’t mean that everything he says is right! So don’t just accept everything he says.
B.It’s silly to vote， since your vote doesn’t count anyway：no election is ever decided by a single vote.
C.George Carlin advises people not to vote， but he’s a jerk， so you shouldn’t do what he says.
D.Walter thinks voting is pointless， but Ram thinks it is important.I find Walter more credible， so I’m not going to vote.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：George Carlin advises people not to vote， but he’s a jerk， so you shouldn’t do what he says.
11、Which of the following arguments is an ad hominem？
A.Honest Abe told me that it will rain today， therefore， it will probably rain today.
B.Lying Larry told me that it will rain today， therefore， it probably will not rain today.
C.Vague Vinny told me that it will rain today， but there’s no substantial difference between raining and drizzling， therefore Vinny will end up having been right even if it just drizzles.
D.Raspy Ralph told me that it will snow， and therefore， he must have heard the weather report.
E.Screaming Sam told me that it will snow today， but he’s wrong.
正确答案：Lying Larry told me that it will rain today， therefore， it probably will not rain today.
12、Which of the following arguments is an appeal to authority？
A.Honest Abe told me that it will rain today， therefore， it will probably rain today.
B.Lying Larry told me that it will rain today， therefore， it probably will not rain today.
C.Vague Vinny told me that it will rain today， but there’s no substantial difference between raining and drizzling， therefore Vinny will end up having been right even if it just drizzles.
D.Raspy Ralph told me that it will snow， and， therefore， he must have heard the weather report.
E.Screaming Sam told me that it will snow today， but he’s wrong.
正确答案：Honest Abe told me that it will rain today， therefore， it will probably rain today.
13、Which of the following arguments is an appeal to authority？
A.It’s true that James blurted out “checkmate” during the game， but he wasn’t even one of the players， so you must ignore what he saiD.B.；James said “checkmate” during the game， and James’s testimony is as reliable as anybody’s， so you should conclude that there is a checkmate.
C.James said “checkmate，” and in fact there is a checkmate， so James spoke the truth.
D.James said “checkmate，” and Jane said that too， so Jane corroborated James’s testimony.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：James said “checkmate” during the game， and James’s testimony is as reliable as anybody’s， so you should conclude that there is a checkmate.
14、Which of the following arguments is an appeal to authority？
A.“The stranger told me that it will rain today， so I should take my umbrella.”
B.“Walter told me that Ram is always lying， but Ram told me that Walter is always lying.Therefore， at least one of them is wrong.”
C.“The New York Times says that it contains all the news that’s fit to print.And it would be fit to print if the New York Times did not contain all the news that’s fit to print.Therefore， the New York Times must really contain all the news that’s fit to print.”
D.“While in a foreign city， I asked a stranger how to get to the local monument.He ignored me， and so he must not know the way.”
E.A and C， but not B or D.
正确答案：“Walter told me that Ram is always lying， but Ram told me that Walter is always lying.Therefore， at least one of them is wrong.”
15、Which of the following arguments is an appeal to authority？
A.It’s true that Joe is a genius， but that doesn’t mean that everything he says is right! So don’t just accept everything he says.
B.It’s silly to vote， since your vote doesn’t count anyway：no election is ever decided by a single vote.
C.George Carlin advises people not to vote， but he’s a jerk， so you shouldn’t do what he says.
D.Walter thinks voting is pointless， but Ram thinks it is important.I find Walter more credible， so I’m not going to vote.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：Walter thinks voting is pointless， but Ram thinks it is important.I find Walter more credible， so I’m not going to vote.
16、Consider the following argument：“Tony claims to have found the Higgs Boson.But Tony is constantly lying to make himself sound important.So I bet he hasn’t found the Higgs Boson at all.”；This argument is an example of
A.a silencer.
B.a dismisser.
C.a denier.
D.an affirmer.
E.an amplifier.
正确答案：a denier.
17、Consider the following argument：“Ronald Reagan thought that there should be a nationwide ban on assault weapons.And no one would know as much about this issue as Ronald Reagan did.Therefore， there should be a nationwide ban on assault weapons.”；This argument is a（n）
A.supporter.
B.affirmer.
C.dismisser.
D.amplifier.
E.denier.
正确答案：affirmer.
第六章单元测试
1、Consider the following dialogue：Hokey：I know that I will go to Heaven when I die.Pokey：How do you know that？Hokey：Because my cleric tells me that I will.Pokey：How do you know that what your cleric says is true？Hokey：Because the Holy Book tells me that everything my cleric says is true.Pokey：How do you know that what your Holy Book says is true？Hokey：Because my cleric told me that everything the Holy Book says is true.；In this dialogue， Hokey is
A.begging the question.
B.equivocating.
C.sliding down a slippery slope.
D.All of the above.
E.None of the above.
正确答案：begging the question.
2、Consider the following dialogue：Hanky：The birth of a child is a blessed event!Panky：So you say， but there are some who worry about human overpopulation， and they deny this.Hanky：This is because they do not know how to tell blessed events from unblessed events.Panky：How does one tell blessed from unblessed events？Hanky：The only way to tell the difference is by consulting one’s feelings.Panky：But how do you know whether you’re consulting your feelings correctly？Hanky：Your feelings will tell you if you’re consulting them correctly.；The last statement that Hanky makes in this dialogue is。
A.question-begging.
B.irrefutable.
C.equivocal.
D.All of the above.
E.None of the above.
正确答案：irrefutable.
3、An argument begs the question when
A.you have no reason to believe the premises.
B.you have no reason to believe the premises unless you already have a reason to believe the conclusion.
C.you have no reason to believe the conclusion unless you already have a reason to believe the premises.
D.you have no reason to believe anything.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：you have no reason to believe the premises unless you already have a reason to believe the conclusion.
4、An argument is circular if
A.the conclusion follows from the premises.
B.the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
C.the conclusion is one of the premises.
D.the conclusion is the only premise.
E.the conclusion is distinct from the premises.
正确答案：the conclusion is one of the premises.
5、Consider the following dialogue：Akey：Those who have been enlightened recognize that the purpose of our life is to carry out Zeus’s orders， as laid down in this ancient document.Brakey：Why should I believe that？ Why shouldn’t I live my life in the way that seems most right to me， and never mind what your ancient document says？Akey：Your questions reveal that you have not been enlightened!；In this dialogue， Akey’s view cannot possibly be
A.false.
B.true.
C.believeD.D.；refuteD.E.；All of the above.
正确答案：refuted.
6、Which of the following claims is irrefutable？
A.Anyone who believes in God can feel His presence.
B.This year， the United States has a larger population than Brazil.
C.The Earth is larger than the Moon.
D.Pluto does not orbit around the Sun.
E.None of the above.
正确答案：Anyone who believes in God can feel His presence.
7、Consider the following argument：“There is a report in the Wall Street Journal that says that the Financial Times is a very reliable newspaper.But when we look at the Financial Times， we see a report that says that the Wall Street Journal is a very reliable newspaper.Therefore， both papers must be very reliable.”；This argument is an example of a
A.fallacy of vagueness.
B.fallacy of equivocation resulting from semantic ambiguity.
C.fallacy of equivocation resulting from syntactic ambiguity.
D.begging the question.
E.counterexample to all arguments.
正确答案：begging the question.
第七章单元测试
1、To refute an argument is to show that
A.it is unsuccessful.
B.its premises do not follow from its conclusion.
C.it is practically useless.
D.it is irrefutable.
E.its conclusion is among its premises.
正确答案：it is unsuccessful.
2、To refute an argument by parallel reasoning is to
A.show that the form of the argument is valid， by producing another valid argument of the same form.
B.show that the form of the argument is invalid， by producing another valid argument of the same form.
C.show that the form of the argument is valid， by producing another invalid argument of the same form.
D.show that the form of the argument is invalid， by producing another invalid argument of the same form.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：show that the form of the argument is invalid， by producing another invalid argument of the same form.
3、To attack a straw man is to show that
A.an argument is made from straw.
B.any argument made from straw cannot be valiD.C.；a particular argument is not sound， but in the course of doing so， to misrepresent one’s target argument.
D.a particular argument is not sound， but in the course of doing so， to misrepresent one’s own proof.
E.a particular argument is both valid and sound， but to do so a way that avoids all use of straw.
正确答案：a particular argument is not sound， but in the course of doing so， to misrepresent one’s target argument.
4、A reductio ad absurdum is a demonstration that
A.a particular premise implies a particular conclusion.
B.a particular conclusion is also a premise.
C.a particular premise implies some absurd conclusion.
D.a particular conclusion implies some particular premise.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：a particular premise implies some absurd conclusion.
5、A reductio ad absurdum is an attempt to show that the argument is
A.valid by proving its conclusion on its independent grounds.
B.unsuccessful by showing that its conclusion is obviously false.
C.unsuccessful by showing that some of its premises are false.
D.unsuccessful by showing that the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
E.fully successful by showing that the attempt to deny it would leave to absurdity.
正确答案：unsuccessful by showing that its conclusion is obviously false.
6、Consider the following dialogue：Argle：You shouldn’t walk on the grass， because if everybody did that， the grass would die from trampling.Bargle：That’s just like arguing that I shouldn’t go to the theater now， because if everyone did that， the theater would be packed so tightly that people would suffocate.；In this exchange， Bargle is attempting to
A.refute a straw man.
B.refute Argle’s reasoning by reduction ad absurdum.
C.refute Argle’s reasoning by providing a counterexample.
D.refute Argle’s reasoning by parallel reasoning.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：refute Argle’s reasoning by parallel reasoning.
7、Consider the following dialogue：Fred：On average， Americans do not live as long as Greeks.Ted：That’s ridiculous! My American uncle lived twenty years longer than my Greek uncle did!；In this exchange， Ted is
A.refuting a straw man.
B.giving a circular argument.
C.guilty of a slippery slope fallacy.
D.committing a fallacy of equivocation.
E.All of the above.
正确答案：refuting a straw man.
8、Consider the following dialogue：Mike：The state needs to make companies pay for the degradation that they cause to our natural environment.Ike：That’s ridiculous! It’s like arguing that the state needs to make unpleasant people pay for the degradation that they cause to our social environment.；In this dialogue， Ike is trying to
A.offer a silencing argument against Mike.
B.offer a dismisser argument against Mike.
C.refute Mike’s argument by parallel reasoning.
D.refute Mike’s argument by counterexample.
E.refute Mike’s argument by interexample.
正确答案：refute Mike’s argument by parallel reasoning.
9、Consider the following dialogue：Walter：There’s a counterexample to every generalization!Ram：Either what you just said is true or it’s false.If it’s true， then there is a counterexample to every generalization， including that very generalization itself—and so it’s false.；In this dialogue， Ram’s argument is an example of
A.a silencer.
B.a dismisser.
C.refutation by parallel reasoning.
D.refutation by counterexample.
E.reductio ad absurdum.
正确答案：refutation by counterexample.